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Requirement or Not, That is the Question: A Case from the Railway Industry
Mälardalen University, School of Innovation, Design and Engineering, Innovation and Product Realisation. RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, Västerås, Sweden.
Mälardalen University, School of Innovation, Design and Engineering, Embedded Systems. RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, Västerås, Sweden.
Mälardalen University, School of Innovation, Design and Engineering, Embedded Systems.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-1512-0844
Mälardalen University, School of Innovation, Design and Engineering, Embedded Systems.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-2416-4205
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2023 (English)In: Lecture Notes In Computer Science, Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH , 2023, p. 105-121Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

[Context and Motivation] Requirements in tender documents are often mixed with other supporting information. Identifying requirements in large tender documents could aid the bidding process and help estimate the risk associated with the project. [Question/problem] Manual identification of requirements in large documents is a resource-intensive activity that is prone to human error and limits scalability. This study compares various state-of-the-art approaches for requirements identification in an industrial context. For generalizability, we also present an evaluation on a real-world public dataset. [Principal ideas/results] We formulate the requirement identification problem as a binary text classification problem. Various state-of-the-art classifiers based on traditional machine learning, deep learning, and few-shot learning are evaluated for requirements identification based on accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score. Results from the evaluation show that the transformer-based BERT classifier performs the best, with an average F1 score of 0.82 and 0.87 on industrial and public datasets, respectively. Our results also confirm that few-shot classifiers can achieve comparable results with an average F1 score of 0.76 on significantly lower samples, i.e., only 20% of the data. [Contribution] There is little empirical evidence on the use of large language models and few-shots classifiers for requirements identification. This paper fills this gap by presenting an industrial empirical evaluation of the state-of-the-art approaches for requirements identification in large tender documents. We also provide a running tool and a replication package for further experimentation to support future research in this area.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH , 2023. p. 105-121
Series
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, ISSN 0302-9743 ; 13975 LNCS
Keywords [en]
NLP, Requirements classification, Requirements identification, tender documents, Deep learning, Information retrieval systems, Natural language processing systems, Requirements engineering, Risk perception, Text processing, Bidding process, F1 scores, Human errors, Manual identification, Public dataset, Railway industry, Requirement identification, Requirements classifications, State-of-the-art approach, Classification (of information)
National Category
Software Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:mdh:diva-62331DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-29786-1_8ISI: 001210623500008Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-85152587069ISBN: 9783031297854 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:mdh-62331DiVA, id: diva2:1753171
Conference
29th International Working Conference on Requirements Engineering: Foundation for Software Quality, REFSQ 2023, Barcelona, Spain, 17-20 April, 2023
Available from: 2023-04-26 Created: 2023-04-26 Last updated: 2025-10-10Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Enhancing Industrial Requirements Processing and Reuse
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Enhancing Industrial Requirements Processing and Reuse
2025 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

We live in a world that depends on software. From the moment we log in to a banking system or when we take the bus to work, we are surrounded by software-intensive systems. These systems are often not built from scratch, but as further iterations of existing systems, adapted for different customers and market segments.

The development of such complex software and variant-intensive systems is centered around customer needs that are usually described in long documents, full of detail, and written in natural language. Companies must read through, interpret, and extract the relevant requirements, decide which teams should develop and test them, and simultaneously identify what can be reused from earlier projects. This process is often manual, carries a risk of mistakes, and demands great experience and precision.

This thesis explores how Artificial Intelligence (AI), and in particular natural language processing (NLP), can help make the process both faster and more reliable. The work is based on six scientific articles, which make four contributions, as follows. First, we study how requirements management and reuse are handled today to identify opportunities for enhancement. Next, we focus on automating the identification and allocation of requirements, so that correct requirements are identified and directed to the right teams from the start. We also develop methods for discovering which parts of previous projects can be reused, to avoid redundant development efforts. Finally, we create a pedagogical resource that enables teachers, students, and professionals to apply the technical solutions in practice.

Through these contributions, the thesis demonstrates how AI can become a powerful support in processing requirements and supporting reuse in complex software development.

Abstract [sv]

Vi lever i en värld som är beroende av programvara. Från det att vi loggar in på banken eller att vi tar bussen till jobbet är vi omgivna av programvaruintensiva system. Ofta byggs dessa system inte från grunden, utan som vidareutvecklingar av redan befintliga lösningar, anpassade för olika kunder och marknader.

Kundernas behov beskrivs vanligen i långa dokument, fulla av detaljer och skrivna på vanligt språk. Företagen måste läsa igenom, tolka och plocka ut de relevanta kraven, bestämma vilka team som ska utveckla och testa dem, och samtidigt se vad som kan återanvändas från tidigare projekt. Det sparar tid och pengar, men är också ett pussel som kräver stor erfarenhet och noggrannhet. I praktiken tar det ofta lång tid, innebär risk för misstag och är beroende av ett fåtal experter.

Den här avhandlingen undersöker hur artificiell intelligens (AI), och i synnerhet naturlig språkbehandling (NLP), kan hjälpa till att göra processen både snabbare och mer tillförlitlig.

Arbetet bygger på sex vetenskapliga artiklar och bidrar inom fyra områden: Först kartlägger vi hur arbetet med kravhantering och återanvändning går till idag, och var det finns störst potential till förbättring. Därefter fokuserar vi på att automatisera själva identifieringen och fördelningen av krav, så att de hamnar hos rätt team från början. Vi utvecklar också metoder för att upptäcka vilka delar av tidigare projekt som kan återanvändas, för att undvika att uppfinna hjulet på nytt. Slutligen skapar vi en pedagogisk resurs som gör det möjligt för lärare, studenter och yrkesverksamma att använda de tekniska lösningarna i praktiken.

Med hjälp av dessa insatser visar avhandlingen hur AI kan bli ett kraftfullt stöd i arbetet med att förstå, organisera och återanvända den kunskap som ryms i komplex programvaruutveckling.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Västerås: Mälardalen University, 2025. p. 290
Series
Mälardalen University Press Dissertations, ISSN 1651-4238 ; 438
National Category
Software Engineering
Research subject
Computer Science
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:mdh:diva-72983 (URN)978-91-7485-715-3 (ISBN)
Public defence
2025-10-27, Alfa, Mälardalens universitet, Västerås, 13:15 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
VinnovaKnowledge FoundationEuropean Commission
Available from: 2025-08-20 Created: 2025-08-19 Last updated: 2025-10-10Bibliographically approved
2. AI-augmented Requirements Engineering for Industrial Systems
Open this publication in new window or tab >>AI-augmented Requirements Engineering for Industrial Systems
2025 (English)Licentiate thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Engineering large-scale industrial systems requires an efficient Requirements Engineering (RE) process to manage the complexity resulting from continuous technological advancements. In manufacturing domains such as railways, the complexity of software-intensive systems is growing due to evolving standards, infrastructure specifications, and increasing customer expectations. Typically, the RE process begins with analyzing extensive tender documents from external customers to assess project feasibility. This analysis is critical, as the tender documents define the scope and the standards to which the system-to-be must comply. Once validated and agreed upon, the requirements are distributed among various subsystem teams for development and testing. During implementation, the evolving requirements are cross-referenced with existing technical documents to ensure consistency across project artifacts and prevent integration issues within subsystems. However, the reliance on manual efforts in performing these RE tasks makes the process labor-intensive and time-consuming, often leading to project scope creep in industrial settings.

This thesis empirically investigates Artificial Intelligence (AI), particularly Large Language Models (LLMs)-based solutions, to augment the RE process for realizing complex industrial systems. The proposed solutions aim to provide decision support to reduce the manual efforts typically required for (i) identifying requirements from other supporting information in tender documents, (ii) detecting ambiguous requirements and explaining them, (iii) allocating validated requirements to appropriate subsystem teams for development and (iv) addressing requirement-related queries during the development and release phases of the project. Consequently, this research contributes to enhancing requirements management in complex industrial systems by enabling more efficient and informed decision-making.

Abstract [sv]

Att konstruera storskaliga industriella system kräver en effektiv Requirements Engineering (RE)-process för att hantera den komplexitet som följer av kontinuerliga tekniska framsteg. Inom tillverkningsdomäner som järnväg ökar komplexiteten i mjukvaruintensiva system på grund av standarder som förändras, infrastrukturspecifikationer och ökade kundförväntningar. RE-processen inleds vanligen med att omfattande anbudsunderlag från externa beställare analyseras för att bedöma projektets genomförbarhet. Denna analys är avgörande eftersom anbudsunderlaget fastställer omfattningen och de standarder som det framtida systemet måste uppfylla. När kraven har validerats och godkänts fördelas de till olika delsystemteam för utveckling och test. Under implementeringen korsrefereras de föränderliga kraven med befintlig teknisk dokumentation för att säkerställa konsekvens emellan artefakter och förhindra integrationsproblem mellan delsystem. Det manuella arbete som krävs för dessa RE-uppgifter gör dock processen arbets- och tidskrävande, vilket ofta leder till 'scope creep' i industriella projekt.

Denna avhandling undersöker empiriskt AI-, särskilt LLMs-baserade, lösningar för att stärka RE-processen vid realisering av komplexa industriella system. De föreslagna lösningarna syftar till att ge beslutsstöd för att minska det manuella arbete som normalt krävs för (i) att identifiera krav bland övrig information i anbudsunderlag, (ii) att upptäcka tvetydiga krav och förklara dem, (iii) att fördela validerade krav till lämpliga delsystemteam för utveckling och (iv) att besvara kravsrelaterade frågor under projektets utvecklings- och releasefaser. Därmed bidrar forskningen till förbättrad kravhantering i komplexa industriella system genom att möjliggöra effektivare och mer välgrundade beslut.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Västerås: Mälardalens universitet, 2025. p. 172
Series
Mälardalen University Press Licentiate Theses, ISSN 1651-9256 ; 378
National Category
Software Engineering
Research subject
Computer Science
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:mdh:diva-73156 (URN)978-91-7485-720-7 (ISBN)
Presentation
2025-10-16, Case, Mälardalens universitet och digitalt., Västerås, 13:15 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
Knowledge FoundationEuropean CommissionVinnova
Available from: 2025-09-02 Created: 2025-09-01 Last updated: 2025-10-10Bibliographically approved

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Bashir, SarmadAbbas, MuhammadSaadatmand, MehrdadEnoiu, Eduard PaulBohlin, Markus

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